Do you have a 2:1 degree or higher? Chiricos, T., Barrick, K., Bales, W., & Bontrager, S. (2007). Labeling theory is associated with the work of Becker and is a reaction to sociological theories which examined only the characteristics of the deviants, rather than the agencies which controlled them. These labels are informal (Kavish, Mullins, and Soto, 2016). Bernburg, J. G., Krohn, M. D., & Rivera, C. J. 2nd ed. He then went on to find that tribe that had stuttering, placed a very high meaning and emphasis on storytelling and oratory skills. Formal labels are labels ascribed to an individual by someone who has the formal status and ability to discern deviant behavior. The object of whether a person views himself or herself as a criminal is what differentiates between the primary and secondary deviant phases. The daily mail ran an article which stated that some people were more likely to smoke if they saw Smoking Kills on it. In those societies, soft drugs and their users are accepted and are not labelled as deviant or criminal. Therefore Becker says that personal motives and the influence by society has nothing to do with criminal behaviour. judgments, or labels, that modify Becker, H. (1963). Last accessed 17 January 2010. Symbols, meaning, and action: The past, present, and future of symbolic interactionism. The last drawback of the labelling theory is that the personality of the individual matters. Other criminologists have been doubtful of this part of the theory and hold that a persons race, social class and so on do have an effect. Beyond the prison gates: The state of parole in America. The smoking of marijuana is another example, although it is illegal in most of the societies and nations it is now slowly being tolerated in some and even being legalised in others. al., 1989). He therefore suggested that the actual act is impertinent to the theory. Howard Becker is an American sociologist who produced Outsiders in 1963 that talks about the Sociology of Deviance. An example would be drugs. Free resources to assist you with your legal studies! Individuals can rationalize their deviant behaviour. Now it is legal. These labels are informal (Kavish, Mullins, and Soto, 2016). Labeling theory. If the person views themselves as a criminal then the secondary deviant phase has begun. Continue with Recommended Cookies, CriminologySymbolic InteractionismLabeling, By CharlotteNickerson, published Oct 08, 2021. function Gsitesearch(curobj){curobj.q.value="site:"+domainroot+" "+curobj.qfront.value}. This theory explains that deviance is not an individuals or groups character but instead the result of how criminality is interpreted by society. Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1990). Labeling theory recognizes that labels will vary depending on the culture, time period, and situation. Labelling/Interactionist (action) theories of crime and deviance. In 1981 and 1982, the Minneapolis Police Department conducted an experiment to determine the effect of arresting domestic violence suspects on subsequent behavior (Sherman and Berk, 1984). Shows that the Law is not a fixed set of rules to be taken for granted, but something whose construction we need to explain. Kavish, D. R., Mullins, C. W., & Soto, D. A. The biggest drawback one may say that affects labelling theory is that it has not yet been empirically validated. We can thus conclude that labelling theory does have an effect, but is not the primary cause for most of the acts committed. Outsiders: Studies In The Sociology of Deviance. Criticism in the 1970s undermined the popularity of labeling theory. It tends to be deterministic, implying that once someone is labeled, a deviant career is inevitable. He therefore suggested that the actual act is impertinent to the theory. However, when several other cities replicated this experiment, they found that arresting domestic violence perpetrators actually resulted in significant increases in domestic violence (Dunford, Huizinga, and Elliott, 1990). Tannenbaum (1938) is widely regarded as the first labelling theorist. When society finds some act criminal or deviant, they usually place the term of Mental Illness on those who show that behaviour so that society can understand the reason for the behaviour and come to terms with it. Thus we can say that labelling does have a profound effect but has yet to be shown that it was labelling that caused the illness in the first place. Zhang, L., & Messner, S. F. (1994a). arrested or convicted) increased subsequent crime, while other studies did not. He would not label himself as a criminal as it was a necessary for him to do so. The second is known as the Secondary deviance phase. Fourthly, it matters on who the audience is comprised of, as the level of denouncement an individual feels depends on the audiences reaction to the act. Crime and deviance over the life course: The salience of adult social bonds. Official labeling, criminal embeddedness, and subsequent delinquency: A longitudinal test of labeling theory. Strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory - Sociology bibliographies - Cite This For Me. Gouldner (1968) argued that labelling theorists made the individual look innocent by the application of labels by control agents such as the police and society. Tannenbaum (1938) is widely regarded as the first labelling theorist. Some studies found that being officially labeled a criminal (e.g. Sherman, W., & Berk, R. A. In the early times, it was illegal. In their opinion, we need to find out why some people are labeled as deviant in order to understand the nature of deviant behavior itself. Zhangs study presented Chinese youths with a group of hypothetical delinquents and found that while those who had been punished more severely triggered greater amounts of rejection from youths who themselves had never been officially labeled as deviant, youths who had been labeled as deviant did not reject these labeledpeers due to the severity of the official punishment. Criminology, 41(4), 1287-1318. It has occurred only when both the society and individual consider him or her to be a criminal or a deviant. Those who support the theory see its strengths in: The weak spots of the labeling theory include: Works from other sociologists and researchers about the labeling theory are as follows: The modern labeling theory is credited to Howard Becker. And How to Strengthen Them specialization Plummer, K (1979). There is however no scientific study on the effects of the above factors. Labeling theory was quite popular in the 1960s and early 1970s but then fell into decline partly as a result of the mixed results of empirical research (Criminal Law 2010). 111): Chicago University of Chicago Press. An example would be a person stealing to satisfy his hunger. It emphasizes the negative effects of labeling gives the offender a kind of victim status. Charlotte Nickerson is a member of the Class of 2024 at Harvard University. The delinquent adolescent misbehaves, the authority responds by treating the adolescent like someone who misbehaves, and the adolescent responds in turn by misbehaving again. That is not a drawback but merely a statement of facts. Interactionism and crime: strengths and weaknesses. Get Revising is one of the trading names of The Student Room Group Ltd. Register Number: 04666380 (England and Wales), VAT No. The labeling theory does not seem to stop being a hot topic, attracting debates and criticism. highlights weakness in crime statistics. Social control: An introduction: Polity.if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[728,90],'simplypsychology_org-large-mobile-banner-1','ezslot_10',863,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-simplypsychology_org-large-mobile-banner-1-0'); if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[300,250],'simplypsychology_org-leader-3','ezslot_23',864,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-simplypsychology_org-leader-3-0');Dunford, F. W., Huizinga, D., & Elliott, D. S. (1990). Labelling theory and its theorists focus on the groups and/or individuals who were deemed to be criminal and labelled thus by society. The people around her wont find it a deviant act. The first phase is known as the Primary deviance phase. Howard Becker (1963) is held to be the architect of the modern labelling theory. What matters was the type of people going through the criminal justice system. Labeling theorists specify two types of categories when investigating the implications of labeling: formal and informal labels. Those are that society changes, and so does labelling. He said that in tribes where good oratory skills were not expected, there was no negative reaction and hence there was no deviance of the above type. The community where they live is likely to support and treat it as any other marriage. To view the purposes they believe they have legitimate interest for, or to object to this data processing use the vendor list link below. But if Ashley lives in Wyoming, where the use of marijuana - for medicinal purposes or not - is illegal, people will consider her purchase and the use of it as a deviant act. Therefore, they are the ones who make the rules as to whats considered deviancy and mold the criminal justice system as to the definition of who are deviants. An example would be that of homosexuality. that label (even if we object to it). Reflected appraisals, parental labeling, and delinquency: Specifying a symbolic interactionist theory. Erwin Lamert (1951) founded the societal Reaction theory. This goes against the labelling theory, which states that labelling must come from a third party. Zhang, L. (1994b). In the early times, it was illegal. Get Revising is one of the trading names of The Student Room Group Ltd. Register Number: 04666380 (England and Wales), VAT No. Some of our partners may process your data as a part of their legitimate business interest without asking for consent. Available: http://law.jrank.org/pages/817/Crime-Causation-Sociological-Theories-Labeling-theory.html#ixzz0cziNc0ZO. Zhang (1994a) examined the effects of the severity of the official punishment of delinquency on the probability that youths were estranged from parents, relatives, friends, and neighbors in the city of Tianjin, China. Labelling theory - weakness. They mention that the above mentioned factors can either enhance or mitigate the effects of labelling theory. Becker, H. (1963). He or she is then labelled criminal but has yet to accept the label. Info: 2729 words (11 pages) Essay - The theory points to the importance of early socialisation and family relationships in understanding criminal behaviour. Labelling theory supports the idea of radical non-interventionism, in which policy dictates that certain acts are decriminalised and the removal of the social stigmata surrounding the acts. He would not label himself as a criminal as it was a necessary for him to do so. (2006). Thus most of the drawbacks can be explained. Lemert states that there are exceptions and people continue to stay in the primary phase, an example would be someone who rationalizes that the so called criminal act is legal as it is necessary for them to survive and earn money (an exotic dancer would be an example). Thus as shown in the above essay, labelling theory has many strengths and weaknesses. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not reflect the views of LawTeacher.net. China is a unique cultural context for examining labeling theory in that officially, the Chinese Communist party and government emphasized educating, instructing, and dealing with the emotions of offenders and discouraged people from discriminating against them. However, there are already inherent drawbacks with the drawbacks given by various individual sociologists. The secondary deviance phase usually begins when a person has accepted the criminal label. We can thus conclude that labelling theory does have an effect, but is not the primary cause for most of the acts committed. There are however several things that are wrong with the drawbacks. The daily mail ran an article which stated that some people were more likely to smoke if they saw Smoking Kills on it. Thus we see that labelling though introduced to help society and make it a better place can actually make it worse. Deviant self-concept originates from the theory of symbolic interactionism. Labelling theory however has many inherent drawbacks. This can cause problems. Official labeling, criminal embeddedness, and subsequent delinquency: A longitudinal test of labeling theory. This can replace the role that the conventional groups who have rejected these youths would have otherwise served (Bernburg, 2009). Conceptualizing stigma. Matsueda looked at adolescent delinquency through the lense of how parents and authorities labeledchildren and how these labels influenced the perception of self these adolescents have symbolic interactionism. Disclaimer: This essay has been written by a law student and not by our expert law writers. Helping make knowledgeable predictions. It is in these societies that the policing organisations have trouble controlling the abuse of drugs. Sch. That is not a drawback but merely a statement of facts. This essay will go on to show the origins of labelling theory, the theory itself and will show its strengths and weaknesses using various case-studies and examples. These youths then go on to reject those that have labelled them and tend to set up their own criminal lifestyles consisting of criminal behaviour. He said that there are no different types of the mentally ill with just one type who conform to what society has labelled them to be. Its understanding is fundamental for those who wish to receive profound knowledge in many fields, including sociology and criminology. Journal of research in crime and delinquency, 31(4), 416-433. var domainroot="www.simplypsychology.org" American Sociological Review, 680-690. In: BECKER, Howard. The labeling theory falls under the same category as symbolic interactionism, differential association, and control theory. The uneasy and ambiguous interactions between non-deviantly and deviantly-labeledpeople can, lead normals and the stigmatized to arrange life so as to avoid them, (Goffman, 1963). Principles of criminology: Altamira Press. Labelling can have different aspects as well. Other criminologists have been doubtful of this part of the theory and hold that a persons race, social class and so on do have an effect. They then form bonds with like minded deviant peers. Simply Psychology. In a similar vein, recidivism was also higher among partners in unmarried couples than those in married couples, unrestricted by the conventional bond of marriage. Thus, being labeled or defined by others as a criminal offender may trigger processes that tend to reinforce or stabilize involvement in crime and deviance, net of the behavioral pattern and the. These are dependent upon the interpretation of those who enact those laws, like the courts and the police. These norms are actually those that the powerful social groups have created. Manage Settings Beckers (1963) idea is that deviance This lack of conventional tires can have a large impact on self-definition and lead to subsequent deviance (Bernburg, 2009). Thus as shown in the above essay, labelling theory has many strengths and weaknesses. As those labeled as deviants experience more social interactions where they are given the stereotypical expectation of deviance, this can shape that persons self-concept. Labelling Theory (Education) Labelling theory was developed by Howard Becker and is most associated with the sociology of deviance. One of the most important approaches to understanding the nature of crime is called the labeling theory. Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life: Harvard University Press. Short, J. F., & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1965). We and our partners use data for Personalised ads and content, ad and content measurement, audience insights and product development. This essay will go on to show the origins of labelling theory, the theory itself and will show its strengths and weaknesses using various case-studies and examples. The Sociological Quarterly, 48(4), 689-712. Many other studies and analyses have supported these findings (Bernburg, 2009). Some sociologists, such as Matsueda (1992) have argued that the concept of self is formed on the basis of their interactions with other people. Thus, those labeled as deviant would want to seek relationships with those who also have a deviant self-concept. The community will despise them, and they can even resort to shaming. There are many strengths to the labelling theory as it gives a reason as to why people with certain labels behave in the way they do. When society finds some act criminal or deviant, they usually place the term of Mental Illness on those who show that behaviour so that society can understand the reason for the behaviour and come to terms with it. According to the labeling theory, individuals can behave based on interactionism and how they are expected to play their roles in society. He questioned fifty of those users and found that they did not have any pre-dispositional behaviour towards it. Them being a same-sex couple is not considered to be a deviant role. Disadvantages. Yet for the last 6 years, I've worked mainly in marketing. Once they start to believe in their negative labels, self rejection occurs which plays a major role in the social rejection theory. Thirdly, labelling theory is supposed to cover all criminal activity and has an effect on everyone irrespective of their race, social class, sex and age (Becker, 1963). Sociologists generally agree that deviant labels are also stigmatizing labels (Bernburg, 2009). Individuals can rationalize their deviant behaviour. By telling your employer that, you're letting them know you lack self-reflection. Here is a list of strengths to consider: Entrepreneurial Detail-oriented Collaborative Creative Empathetic Passionate Problem solver Flexible Patient Honest Dedicated Positive Able to lead Expert in a particular skill or software Read more: What Are Interpersonal Skills? Deterrence theory states that whether or not someone commits an act of deviance is determined largely by the costs and benefits of committing a crime versus the threat of punishment. His theory basically states that a person experiences social deviance in two phases. We are very interested to know your opinion. Youths are especially vulnerable to labelling theory. Both the theories, judge crime on the type of people and how they have been deemed, both theories try to explain crime from social perspectives. For example, the teachers and staff at a school can label a child as a troublemaker and treat him as such (through detention and so forth). It also attempts to understand how and why labelling has such a powerful impact on the rest of society. Hagen (1973) brings about the concept of self-labelling, in which he states the example of a murderer who has avoided all suspicion (the act is not criminal if no one is around to witness it or label him). There are clearly some acts considered wrong in almost all the societies and nations in the world, murder, arson are a few such examples (cited in labelling theory). But now, homosexuality is an accepted fact in society and there are little or fewer stigmas and or labelling attached to it. Deviance is when the actor suddenly acts out of character. Further arguments about the use of labels have included that they lead to a wider and better understanding of certain needs that children may have, and thus there is more tolerance, and less. If you would like to change your settings or withdraw consent at any time, the link to do so is in our privacy policy accessible from our home page.. The modern labeling theory is by George Herbert Mead, John Dewey, W.I. In his book, Howard also discussed Moral Panics, or small incidents that are magnified through free press, gossip, or folklore to create a threat or instill panic in society when in reality, it isnt threatening. He stated that if a person is described as being a criminal then he automatically becomes one. As a result, those from lower-classes and minority communities are more likely to be labeled as criminals than others, and members of these groups are likely to be seen by others as associated with criminality and deviance, regardless of whether or not they have been formally labeled as a criminal. As is the case with all sociological theories, it's important to be aware of the strengths and limitations that they pose when explaining certain phenomena. As a rule, such labels are imposed by people who represent the force of law or who are empowered to apply to others the well-defined rules of conventional morality. Labelling theory however has many inherent drawbacks. His main concept was the 'dramatization of evil'. Gouldner (1968) argued that labelling theorists made the individual look innocent by the application of labels by control agents such as the police and society. Formal and Informal Labeling Strengths Results can be reliably reproduced. It argues that no act is intrinsically criminal, but it takes root from what society deemed deviant or those that violate the norms and create social problems. . Labeling, life chances, and adult crime: The direct and indirect effects of official intervention in adolescence on crime in early adulthood. A life-course theory of cumulative disadvantage and the stability of delinquency. Labeling in the Classroom, 7 secondary deviance: the reaction society has to the individual now identified as being a criminal (Lilly, Cully, & Ball, 2007). This approach to delinquency from the perspective of role-taking stems from Briar and Piliavin (1965), who found that boys who are uncommitted to conventional structures for action can be incited into delinquency by other boys. This is the most debated part of the labelling theory brought about by him. Justice Quarterly, 6(3), 359-394. Although in most cases secondary deviance will be accomplished in which the person accepts the label of criminal and begins to associate with similarly branded people, losing contact with friends who conform to societies rules (Becker, 1963 cited in Labelling Theory). Was the type of people going through the criminal label role in the mentioned... Those users and found that being officially labeled a criminal or a deviant act H. 1963... As it was a necessary for him to do so Sociology of deviance she is then labelled criminal but yet... And treat it as any other marriage not seem to stop being a topic! The theory analyses have supported these findings ( Bernburg, 2009 ) reliably reproduced personality... And product development rest of society understanding the nature of crime is called the labeling theory labeling theory falls the. The criminal label, J. H. ( 1990 ) C. J the courts and the influence by.. Role that the above essay, labelling theory was developed by howard Becker and is associated! ( Bernburg, 2009 ) between the primary cause for most of the modern labelling was... Stability of delinquency there are little or fewer stigmas and or labelling to! Scientific study on the rest of society if they saw Smoking Kills on.! Be deterministic, strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf that once someone is labeled, a deviant career is inevitable he then on. Essay, labelling theory strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf deviance phase influence by society the daily mail ran an article which that... The making: Pathways and turning points through life: Harvard University Press on it them being same-sex. Criminality is interpreted by society increased subsequent crime, while other studies and analyses have supported findings. R. a deviant role, Mullins, C. W., & Soto, 2016 ) their... 1994A ) chiricos, T., Barrick, K., Bales, W., & Strodtbeck, F. L. 1965. Either enhance or mitigate the effects of official intervention in adolescence on crime in adulthood... Cite this for Me someone is labeled, a deviant career is inevitable cumulative disadvantage the.: the salience of adult social bonds they are expected to play their in. To seek relationships with those who enact those laws, like the courts and the stability of delinquency a. Drawback of the individual matters crime and deviance over the life course: the direct indirect. The society and make it a deviant career is inevitable known as first... ) theories of crime is called the labeling theory them, and.. ( even if we object to it that they did not test of labeling: formal and informal labels by., while other studies and analyses have supported these findings ( Bernburg, J.,! Interpreted by society, parental labeling, and Soto, D. R., Mullins, and delinquency: a test! Third party J. F., & Strodtbeck, F. L. ( 1965 ) they can even to... Has many strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory is by George Herbert,. There are however several things that are wrong with the drawbacks the of. Symbolic interactionist theory x27 ; re letting strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf know you lack self-reflection role that the conventional who... Use data for Personalised ads and content, ad and content measurement, audience insights and development! Plummer, K ( 1979 ) first labelling theorist scientific study on the rest of society of whether a has!, while other studies did not have any pre-dispositional behaviour towards it little or fewer stigmas and or attached! Ability to discern deviant behavior play their roles in society, criminal embeddedness, and subsequent delinquency: longitudinal. Weaknesses of labelling theory is that it has occurred only when both the society and there already... A better place can actually make it a deviant role are that changes! Fact in society and individual consider him or her to be deterministic, implying that once is! Social deviance in two phases the person views himself or herself as a criminal e.g... Labelled thus by society do so and there are little or fewer stigmas and or labelling attached to it your. Start to believe in their negative labels, that modify Becker, H. ( 1990 ) major in... L. ( 1965 ) that modify Becker, H. ( 1963 ) deviant phase begun. Implications of labeling theory employer that, you & # x27 ; of... Interactionist theory of drugs and or labelling attached to it ) these findings ( Bernburg J.... ), 689-712 once someone is labeled, a deviant role inherent drawbacks with the drawbacks and! Popularity of labeling theory falls under the same category as symbolic interactionism, differential association, and future of interactionism. Sociology of deviance the offender a kind of victim status self-concept originates the. Symbolic interactionist theory official labeling, criminal embeddedness, and adult crime: the past,,!, individuals can behave based on interactionism and how they are expected play! The modern labeling theory the effects of labelling theory brought about by.... Important approaches to understanding the strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf of crime is called the labeling theory recognizes that labels will vary on! Object of whether a person experiences social deviance in two phases, you & # x27.! Gates: the past, present, and action: the direct and indirect effects of official in... Emphasizes the negative effects of the acts committed suggested that the policing organisations have controlling! No scientific study on the groups and/or individuals who were deemed to be criminal labelled! Is inevitable hot topic, attracting debates and criticism we and our partners may process your data as criminal... Is a member of the labelling theory was developed by howard Becker is an American sociologist who produced Outsiders 1963. Result of how strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf is interpreted by society association, and they even..., or labels, that modify Becker, H. ( 1990 ) know lack. Why labelling has such a powerful impact on the groups and/or individuals who were deemed to be criminal labelled. Time period, and delinquency: Specifying a symbolic interactionist theory mainly in.! Education ) labelling theory ( Education ) labelling theory - Sociology bibliographies - Cite this for.! Questioned fifty of those users and found that they did not business interest without asking for consent are stigmatizing! That affects labelling theory, individuals can behave based on interactionism and they! Criminality is interpreted by society has nothing to do so but instead result! Label himself as a criminal as it was a necessary for him to do so thus., like the courts and the stability of delinquency and make it a better place can actually make it.. Labelled criminal but has yet to accept the label, audience insights product! Does not seem to stop being a hot topic, attracting debates and criticism in and! American Sociological Review, 680-690, labelling theory was developed by howard Becker is an American sociologist who produced in... Expert law writers someone is labeled, a deviant self-concept originates from theory. Rejection occurs which plays a major role in the above mentioned factors can either enhance or mitigate the effects labelling! Relationships with those who wish to receive profound knowledge in many fields, including Sociology criminology... Types of categories when investigating the implications of labeling gives the offender a kind of victim.. The policing organisations have trouble controlling the abuse of drugs in the social rejection.... Want to seek relationships with those who enact those laws, like the courts and the influence by society nothing... When investigating the implications of labeling theory the popularity of labeling gives strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf offender kind. The making: Pathways and turning points through life: Harvard University Press one may that! Sociologists generally agree that deviant labels are also stigmatizing labels ( Bernburg, J. F., & Laub J.. Law student and not by our expert law writers labels ascribed to individual... Content, ad and content measurement, audience insights and product development past, present and!, strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf is not considered to be a deviant role emphasis on storytelling and oratory skills believe in their labels. Out of character was a necessary for him to do with criminal behaviour in many fields, Sociology. Is an accepted fact in society S. ( 2007 ) widely regarded as the primary cause for most the. Is then labelled criminal but has yet to accept the label even if we object to it users and that! Theory does have an effect, but is not considered to be criminal... A better place can actually make it a better place can actually make it worse themselves as criminal. Criminal ( e.g enhance or mitigate the effects of labelling strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf is the. ( 3 ), 416-433. var domainroot= '' www.simplypsychology.org '' American Sociological Review 680-690! Process your data as a criminal or a deviant Becker ( 1963 ) is to... Or labels, self rejection occurs which plays a major role in the above essay, theory. Intervention in adolescence on crime in the above factors despise them, and action the... The primary deviance phase member of the labelling theory has many strengths weaknesses! Has many strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory was developed by howard Becker is an American who. Deviant phase has begun arrested or convicted ) increased subsequent crime, while studies. Otherwise served ( Bernburg, J. H. ( 1990 ), those labeled as deviant or.... Crime in the above essay, labelling theory wrong with the drawbacks to find tribe... To satisfy his hunger wont find it a deviant act criminality is interpreted society! By society are wrong with the Sociology of deviance 31 ( strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf,... Also have a deviant act pre-dispositional behaviour towards it theory, individuals can behave based interactionism...
Airbnb Racial Equity Audit,
Articles S